P08_HUS- The Nation Prepares for its 4th Centennial Era (1954 – Present)

P08_The Nation Prepares for its 4th Centennial Era (1954 – Present) 

The activity will generally cover the years 1954 through the Present. Of course, there may be a few exceptions that reach to an earlier or later date. Unit08 and Unit09 of the course textbook, as well as additional outside source materials, will offer a skeletal outline with sufficient flesh (pardon the Biology reference) for the period this project will cover.

The 64 years these topics span are squarely within the American Imperium that arose during and after WWII. The nation faces challenges on a global scale given its global presence. While the challenges to US economic and military might are to be expected with a new global responsibility. Challenges have and will materialize that causes all citizens to pause and ponder a question that the Founders undoubtedly debated: What is The United States? Unlike the material aspect of the economy and the military, the question of what ‘We’ are is philosophical. Such a challenge may be the greatest we’ll face in the decades yet to come.

In this project student groups will select and analyze significant challenges of the latter 20th C./ early 21st C. That analysis, shaped by group-level debate, will supply the content for a 35 minute class lesson. The goal is just as much to inform as it is to ignite additional civil debate.

This era in our nation’s history is largely relegated to two branches of our United States History Research Primer. These branches are: The American Imperium and Civics, Society & Us.

Phase I

1. Please open the P08_The Nation Prepares for its 4th Centennial Era mindmap prepared for you by Mr.V.

2. The mindmap contains branches that provide guidance for the completion of the research project. One branch identifies the general topic areas to focus our research investigations. The list of topic areas appears below.

01 Goals of a “Great Society”
02 Civil Rights as Universal Rights
03 Man on the Moon: Tech Challenges & Tech Successes
04 Supreme Court Decisions (relevant today)
05 Abuse of Power and Authority
06 Terrorism

3. Organize your groups.

A. Choose a group leader. That group leader will be given a score reflecting their ability to successfully guide the group to a successful completion of the project. Group leader positions are on a project-by-project basis with everyone serving in that role at least once.

B. Choose a speaker. That speaker will be given a score reflecting their speaking performance during the presentation. Speaker positions are on a project-by-project basis with everyone serving in that role at least once.

C. Setup a communication system so that group members can communicate outside of classroom.

D. Choose how your group will collect, organize, and keep track of data collection by group members. If you decide to use a mindmap, you must share the map with Mr.V (full access). If you decide to use Google, you must create a ‘Team Drive’ and share that with Mr.V (full access). This segment of the project is not normally evaluated since it is a practical application of skills previously taught and practiced. However, under certain conditions, it may impact the group’s grade when a member’s contributions must be assessed for other reasons: Attendance/ tardiness issues, erroneous content presented as facts, etc. 

Phase II

1. Begin collecting sources that may be of use in the researching of your assigned topic area. The sources, as before, are to come from the US History Research Primer and any additional source you verify with Mr.V. The History Research Primer: Sources and Guidance is also recommended for use.

2. Avoid the temptation to begin constructing the presentation. You are expected to conduct this phase of your research in-class to permit you the opportunity to ask Mr.V questions when you encounter a difficulty. The construction of the presentation file is primarily an administrative task that can, and should, be done out-of-class. You will have no more than 5 class periods to complete this and the next phase. Any additional time will have to be out-of-class.

Phase III

1. Begin the analysis of your accumulated source documents.

2. The gathering of data has to come to an end or you run the risk of never finishing. The analysis phase requires that you read, listen to (audio source), or view (video source) the content you’ve amassed. Keep the relevant materials and discard what proves to be unhelpful materials.

As you do this, your computer monitor should be split into two windows that allow you to analyze your source and take notes on that source. The notes you create should be available for members of your group to see and comment on in Mindmeister/ Google Drive. It’s important that ‘your’ notes bear ‘your’ name (Mr.V needs to be able to trace the notes to its creator).

You are expected to conduct this phase of your research in-class to permit you the opportunity to ask Mr.V questions when you encounter a difficulty. You will have no more than 5 class periods to complete this and the previous phase. Any additional time will have to be out-of-class.

Phase IV

1. Mr.V will have distributed to all group leaders, by now, a rubric outlining how the project will be evaluated. Use that rubric, and the project mindmap to guide your analysis of the sources.

2. Construct and submit the presentation file and Lesson Plan in accordance with the guidance provided by Mr.V.

3.Mr.V will allow you one opportunity to edit the presentation file after viewing it on the large screen. Submit a new file and updated lesson plan before 7PM on the date posted on the course calendar.

Consider the following as you prepare the presentation:

Be sure to…
-Don’t ignore the feedback received from previous presentations. Repeating an error or omission is worse than committing it the first time.

-Control the balance between ‘text’ and imagery.

-Did you provide content your research was intended to reveal? Was it delivered in a manner that the audience can understand? Does your lesson plan (including activity and quiz) reflect the content presented and delivered?

-Consider the audience: How close will they be to your presentation (projection)? How long will the slide be visible for them to look at and assimilate it’s data?

-Time limit for the presentation.

-Sources properly credited/ cited.

P08_The Nation Prepares for its 4th Centennial Era Presentations

Below are the presentations created by all the research groups for this project session. Take advantage of the hard work your peers put into the research and presentation.

01. Goals of a “Great Society“ (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

02. Civil Rights as Universal Rights (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

03. Man on the Moon: Tech Challenges & Tech Successes (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

04. Supreme Court Decisions (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

05. Abuse of Power and Authority(Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

06. Terrorism (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

Administrative Data w/ regards to teacher preparation:

Purpose: To continue the refinement of researching skills and streamlining the creation of research findings. We, in this project, expand beyond the one-way presentation model to incorporate the audience as active participants.

Objective: Produce a classroom lesson (presentation, activity, & assessment) of 30 – 35 minutes in length with the exclusive purpose of educating the audience on a particular curriculum topic by inciting questions, discussion, and debate.

Overall Goal: To actualize the ‘Purpose’ and achieve the ‘Objective’ by addressing the following standards:

-RH.11-12: Cite specific text sources.

-RH.11-12.3: Evaluate various explanations to determine which best conforms to text evidence.

-RH. 11-12.7/9: Evaluate and integrate sources appearing in a variety of formats.

-WHST. 11-12.1: Write arguments on specific content.– Honing Presentation Skills

P07_HUS The American Imperium (1939 – 1970)

P07_The American Imperium 

The activity will cover from ~1939 (Great Depression Era) to 1970 (Cold War Era). Of course, there may be a few exceptions that reach to an earlier or later date. For my students, Unit07 of our textbook will offer a good skeletal outline for the period this project will cover.

WWII may be the single-most impactful event in the study of the era that follows. It could be said that the rise of the United States as a World Power, then, a Super Power can only be adequately explained by the events before and immediately after WWII. The development of this “American Imperium” is not exclusively a military matter and we will not be limited to it. In this project we will attempt to dissect the era from 1939 – 1970 by researching the topics listed below, in the fashion of previous projects.

This era in our nation’s history is largely relegated to three branches of our United States History Research Primer. These branches are: The Great Depression, WWII, and The American Imperium.

Phase I

1. Please open the P07_The American Imperium mindmap prepared for you by Mr.V.

2. The mindmap contains branches that provide guidance for the completion of the research project. One branch identifies the general topic areas to focus our research investigations. The list of topic areas appears below.

01 WWII: The Combatants
02 WWII: History-Shaking Events
03 US Homefront: Japanese-American Internment
04 US Homefront: The Media
05 The Cold War
06 US Postwar Economic Boom

3. Organize your groups.

A. Choose a group leader. That group leader will be given a score reflecting their ability to successfully guide the group to a successful completion of the project. Group leader positions are on a project-by-project basis with everyone serving in that role at least once.

B. Choose a speaker. That speaker will be given a score reflecting their speaking performance during the presentation. Speaker positions are on a project-by-project basis with everyone serving in that role at least once.

C. Setup a communication system so that group members can communicate outside of classroom.

D. Choose how your group will collect, organize, and keep track of data collection by group members. If you decide to use a mindmap, you must share the map with Mr.V (full access). If you decide to use Google, you must create a ‘Team Drive’ and share that with Mr.V (full access). This segment of the project is not normally evaluated since it is a practical application of skills previously taught and practiced. However, under certain conditions, it may impact the group’s grade when a member’s contributions must be assessed for other reasons: Attendance/ tardiness issues, erroneous content presented as facts, etc. 

Phase II

1. Begin collecting sources that may be of use in the researching of your assigned topic area. The sources, as before, are to come from the US History Research Primer and any additional source you verify with Mr.V. The History Research Primer: Sources and Guidance is also recommended for use.

2. Avoid the temptation to begin constructing the presentation. You are expected to conduct this phase of your research in-class to permit you the opportunity to ask Mr.V questions when you encounter a difficulty. The construction of the presentation file is primarily an administrative task that can, and should, be done out-of-class. You will have no more than 5 class periods to complete this and the next phase. Any additional time will have to be out-of-class.

Phase III

1. Begin the analysis of your accumulated source documents.

2. The gathering of data has to come to an end or you run the risk of never finishing. The analysis phase requires that you read, listen to (audio source), or view (video source) the content you’ve amassed. Keep the relevant materials and discard what proves to be unhelpful materials.

As you do this, your computer monitor should be split into two windows that allow you to analyze your source and take notes on that source. The notes you create should be available for members of your group to see and comment on in Mindmeister/ Google Drive. It’s important that ‘your’ notes bear ‘your’ name (Mr.V needs to be able to trace the notes to its creator).

You are expected to conduct this phase of your research in-class to permit you the opportunity to ask Mr.V questions when you encounter a difficulty. You will have no more than 5 class periods to complete this and the previous phase. Any additional time will have to be out-of-class.

Phase IV

1. Mr.V will have distributed to all group leaders, by now, a rubric outlining how the project will be evaluated. Use that rubric, and the project mindmap to guide your analysis of the sources.

2. Construct and submit the presentation file in accordance with the guidance provided by Mr.V.

3. Mr.V will allow you one opportunity to edit the presentation file after viewing it on the large screen. Submit a new file before 7PM on the date posted on the course calendar.

Consider the following as you prepare the presentation:

Be sure to…
-Don’t ignore the feedback received from previous presentations. Repeating an error or omission is worse than committing it the first time.

-Control the balance between ‘text’ and imagery.

-Did you provide content your research was intended to reveal? Was it delivered in a manner that the audience can understand?

-Consider the audience: How close will they be to your presentation (projection)? How long will the slide be visible for them to look at and assimilate it’s data?

-Time limit for the presentation.

–Sources properly credited/ cited.

P07_The American Imperium Presentations

Below are the presentations created by all the research groups within our US History course. Take advantage of the hard work your peers put into the research that supports their presentation.

01. WWII: The Combatants (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

02. WWII: History-Shaking Events (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

03. US Homefront: Japanese-American Internment (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

04. US Homefront: The Media (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

05. The Cold War (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

06. US Postwar Economic Boom (Period 2, Period 10)

Administrative Data w/ regards to teacher preparation:

Purpose: To continue the refinement of researching skills and streamlining the creation of research findings. The project guidelines can be found by clicking the node link.

Objective: Produce a presentation of 8 – 10 minutes in length with the exclusive purpose of educating the audience on a particular topic of the course curriculum.

Overall Goal: To actualize the ‘Purpose’ and achieve the ‘Objective’ by addressing the following standards:

-RH.11-12: Cite specific text sources.

-RH.11-12.3: Evaluate various explanations to determine which best conforms to text evidence.

-RH. 11-12.7/9: Evaluate and integrate sources appearing in a variety of formats.

-WHST. 11-12.1: Write arguments on specific content.

– Honing Presentation Skills

P05_HUS Progressive Era-A Time for Change

P05_Progressive Era- A Time for Change

The activity will cover a period of time from ~1877 (End of Reconstruction) to 1920 (advent of the ‘Roaring Twenties). Of course, there may be a few exceptions that reache to an earlier or later date.

The period marks another watershed period for the nation. The successes and failures of the Recontruction policy of the Federal government established the foundation for the succeeding era: The Gilded Age. The age is marked by an economic expansion partially energized by a developing Business-Government partnership. For more than a quarter-century that partnership witnessed the rise of national corporations with an economic dominance we’ve come to associate with trusts/ monopolies. This growing power over the economic engine of the nation creates an atmosphere where laws, or any semblance of ethical conduct, is set aside for increased profits. The Business-Government partnership is not conducive to a self-regulating economic system.

The accumulation of wealth into the hands of a small, economically elite, fraction of the population contributes to a ‘Have and Have Not’ social picture. Philanthropy becomes an increasingly benevolent product of this disparity, but it’s unable to level the playing field for the ‘Have Nots’. Civil unrest, peaceful and deadly, pushes the nation’s leadership to reconsider the Gilded Age partnership with ‘Business’. Those leaders, from the larger than life characters (Teddy Roosevelt) to unionizing coal miners who lost their lives in shoot-outs, were integral in asking for reforms and executing ‘Calls to Action’ that created “The Progressive Era.”

This era in our nation’s history is labeled ‘The Gilded Age *** Progressive Era’ in our United States History Research Primer.

Phase I

1. Please open the P05_The Progressive Era mindmap prepared for you by Mr.V.

2. The mindmap contains branches that provide guidance for the completion of the research project. One branch identifies the general topic areas to focus our research investigations. The list of topic areas appears below.

01 Labor
02 Environment
03 Law: US Constitution & Federal Statutes
04 Foreign Affairs
05 National Finance
06 Prohibition

3. Organize your groups.

A. Choose a group leader. That group leader will be given a score reflecting their ability to successfully guide the group to a successful completion of the project. Group leader positions are on a project-by-project basis with everyone serving in that role at least once.

B. Choose a speaker. That speaker will be given a score reflecting their speaking performance during the presentation. Speaker positions are on a project-by-project basis with everyone serving in that role at least once.

C. Setup a communication system so that group members can communicate outside of classroom.

D. Choose how your group will collect, organize, and keep track of data collection by group members. If you decide to use a mindmap, you must share the map with Mr.V (full access). If you decide to use Google, you must create a ‘Team Drive’ and share that with Mr.V (full access). This segment of the project is not normally evaluated since it is a practical application of skills previously taught and practiced. However, under certain conditions, it may impact the group’s grade when a member’s contributions must be assessed for other reasons: Attendance/ tardiness issues, erroneous content presented as facts, etc. 

Phase II

1. Begin collecting sources that may be of use in the researching of your assigned topic area. The sources, as before, are to come from the US History Research Primer and any additional source you verify with Mr.V. The History Research Primer: Sources and Guidance is also recommended for use.

2. Avoid the temptation to begin constructing the presentation. You are expected to conduct this phase of your research in-class to permit you the opportunity to ask Mr.V questions when you encounter a difficulty. The construction of the presentation file is primarily an administrative task that can, and should, be done out-of-class. You will have no more than 5 class periods to perform this phase. Any additional time will have to be out-of-class.

Phase III

1. Begin the analysis of your accumulated source documents.

2. The gathering of data has to come to an end or you run the risk of never finishing. The analysis phase requires that you read, listen to (audio source), or view (video source) the content you’ve amassed. Keep the relevant materials and discard what proves to be unhelpful materials.

As you do this, your computer monitor should be split into two windows that allow you to analyze your source and take notes on that source. The notes you create should be available for members of your group to see and comment on in Mindmeister/ Google Drive. It’s important that ‘your’ notes bear ‘your’ name (Mr.V needs to be able to trace the notes to its creator).

You are expected to conduct this phase of your research in-class to permit you the opportunity to ask Mr.V questions when you encounter a difficulty. You will have no more than 5 class periods to complete this phase. Any additional time will have to be out-of-class.

Phase IV

1. Mr.V will have distributed to all group leaders, by now, a rubric outlining how the project will be evaluated. Use that rubric, and the P05_Progressive Era project mindmap to guide your analysis of the sources.

2. Construct and submit the presentation file in accord with the guidance provided by Mr.V.

3. On the first class day after submitting your presentation file, Mr.V will allow you one final opportunity to edit the file after viewing it on the large screen. If the edits are substantial, submit a new file before 7PM that evening.

Consider the following as you prepare the presentation:

Be sure to…
-Control the balance between ‘text’ and imagery.

-Did you provide the content your research was intended to reveal? Was it delivered in a manner that the audience can understand?

-Consider the audience: How close will they be to your presentation (projection)? How long will the slide be visible for them to look at and assimilate it’s data?

-Time limit for the presentation.

–Sources properly credited/ cited.

P05_The Progressive Era Presentations

Below are the links to the presentations created by all the research groups within our US History course. Take advantage of the hard work your peers put into the research that supports their presentation.

01. Labor (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

02. Environment (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

03. Law: US Constitution & Federal Statutes (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

04. Foreign Affairs (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

05. National Finance (Period 2, Period 10)

06. Prohibition (Period 2, Period 9, Period 10)

“The Misinformation Crisis” is Not New.

The comments I offer here were spurred on by the 13 January 2018 episode of The Open Mind podcast (Misinformation Crisis), hosted by Alexander Heffner.

As the title implies, the discussion centered on the perceived flood of ‘Fake News’ that may have impacted the 2016 US Presidential election and could have implications for elections worldwide ever since. The comments I offer here are just that, comments of a private citizen and not a scholarly treatise on the subject. Wikipedia links are provided for young readers to acquaint themselves with events I experienced first-hand.

The first matter concerning ‘misinformation’ (I want to avoid the currently acceptable adjective of ‘fake news’) is that it is new or rare. Having been born in 1960, I have had the opportunity to witness significant events within the United States and abroad. In all honesty, I can’t remember any moment when those events did not generate a barrage of information that was questionable at best, false at worst. Immediately coming to mind as I’m typing this was the attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan in March 1981. I vividly recall network news anchormen chastising their own staff in real time on live TV for passing on questionable information. That same network reported that Alexander Haig, then the Secretary of State, had stated that he “… was now in control…”. What did that mean? Was there a coup? Is the President and Vice President dead?

Another event that made for riveting news coverage was the bombing of the Oklahoma City Federal Building in April 1995. The first bit of news I received via television news networks regarding the culprit was that Muslim terrorists were suspected. An accident, or the possibility of domestic terrorism, was entertained. By this time in our ‘Information Age’, our society had already migrated to accusing enemies, real or imagined.

Yes, misinformation has always been around and will not ever be eradicated in a democratic society without accusing the government of censoring. Information, in any society, is a valuable ‘thing’. Having access to it was always important. Let’s turn to an area that was touched upon in the episode: the impact on the 2016 US Presidential election.

The guest interviewed by Mr. Heffner was Mr. Claes de Vreese, from the University of Amsterdam. Mr. de Vreese makes a statement that information has been increasingly “polluted” and this, paired with the nature of US presidential elections, puts our system at particular risk when compared with other systems in Europe. Mr. de Vreese targeted the peculiarities of the Electoral College system as contributing to a scenario where ‘polluted’ information could (and probably did in 2016) sway an electorate and award a political office to a candidate without a majority vote total. I could not keep from entertaining the sneaky notion that Mr. de Vreese was politely criticizing US electoral procedures. It’s been my view that I would never exchange our constitution for anything Europeans have to offer. I do, with all humility, accept the thought that the Electoral College is a remnant of a bygone era in the formation of our republic. An era where information was predominantly accessible to, and controlled by, a tiny (elite) class of citizen. The mass of citizens were never expected to have sufficient mastery of information to make a credible choice for President of the United States. Those who had the access would choose the electors who then made the presidential selection.

The Electoral College is from a world that no longer exists. It’s constitutional repeal would be in keeping with an electorate that has access to the information necessary for a sound decision. Such a move would place greater emphasis on the wishes of a majority or plurality voters. This does not directly address the misinformation crisis, but it does remove an electoral peculiarity that may be overly impacted by misinformation, as expressed by Mr. de Vreese. Combating misinformation can become a targeted initiative without side-tracking into political frameworks.
Since the advent of the Internet, information has been ‘democratized’ by giving vast numbers access to it via devices and services that have become increasingly affordable (Personal Computers, Internet Connectivity, and Handheld devices). This development happened to accelerate during my teaching career, 1987 – 2018. Prior to 2016, there had always been efforts within the classes I and my colleagues taught to show students how to research historical content. The researching process, as I was shown in college and I taught in class, was to arrive to the closest semblance of truth (facts as understood at the time and place of focus). This process emphasized primary documents, multiple sources, and understanding the impact of context on the material (Time, Place, and Circumstance). Never is the process meant to isolate and remove biased content. Such a goal is bound to fail since all human-generated content is, by nature, biased in some way. Instead, the goal is to enhance the decision-making ability of the person doing the research. That decision could be anything from presenting a thesis relevant on an environmental problem to selecting a US President. Since 2016, this process is as valid as it ever was. The dual edge of the Internet is that it has a democratizing effect, but can hurt democracies if citizens can’t distinguish reputable sources from non-reputable sources.

‘Freedom of the Press’ is a Constitutional protection. But, do news outlets have a responsibility to the clients that read their news? I believe they do. The problem, however, goes a bit further because the Internet has created news sources that have traditionally not existed before. This doesn’t alter the distribution of responsibility. Among traditional news sources there have always been periodicals who entertain with their news rather than inform (remember the tabloid papers at the check-out line in a supermarket?). I don’t recall any of my friends ever reading those tabloids for their daily run-down on world events (they were read while waiting on the check-out line for a laugh or two). The professional/ ethical constraints placed on our traditional news sources should also apply on the new, non-traditional, digital sources. The profesionalization of these outlets should be self imposed and monitored by relevant associations. Failure to do so, echoing Mr. de Vreese, invites regulation. Some might see that word as taboo, but to ignore the problem invites greater harm to our democracy.

Being a citizen in the United States, or any democracy for that matter, requires vigilance. Access to information is critical for the political process to function as access to medicine is central for addressing illness. But, like medicine, the information that falls within our grasp has to be understood. The content’s source is as important to know as the content’s veracity. We can subdue this monster-like nature of unfettered information flow. It can start with emphasizing existing school instruction with our younger citizens. The problem is not new and not rare. The goal is not to quell the voices of information, but improve each individual’s ability to turn ‘the monster’ into a valuable decision-making tool. With all due respect to Mr. de Vreese and other European-based commentators of our 2016 Presidential election, my nation has a problem that is part and parcel a symptom of the “Great Experiment” our founders set in motion 250 years ago. It’s incumbent upon our citizenry to notice that something is wrong and initiate appropriate remediation. The 2016 Presidential election and the numerous tentacles that connect it to other matters (need I mention the Russian collusion scandal) is no more than an alert to our citizens that our experiment needs an adjustment.

P02b_HGS-The Classical World

P02b_The Classical World

The activity will cover a period of time from ~8th C. BCE to 6th C. CE (with a few exceptions that may reach beyond). The period marks the beginning, height, and decline of the Classical Era. Many of the foundational elements of our philosophical and political world are established and developed in this period.

You are expected to use the sources found within the World History Research Primer and the History Research Primer Sources & Guidance that are accessible via the ‘Resources’ section of this website. Any other sources must approved by Mr.V via a Schoology message. Approvals can only be done during the second half of the research projects duration. Since our course uses a textbook for reading assignments, it can be used as a source without prior approval (Textbook chapters that relate to the content of this project are Ch. 05 through 09). However, the content requirements for this research project will not be fully served by your textbook and must be significantly augmented by other sources.

Guidance:
Phase I

1. Please open the P02b_The Classical World mindmap prepared for you by Mr.V.

The mindmap contains six branches labeled for the topic areas being explored. The list of topic areas appears below.

01 China
02 Greece
03 Rome
04 Africa
05 South Asia/ India
06 Americas

Open the branch that is assigned to your group. You’ll see that ‘focus statements’, meant to surgically dissect the issue, have been incorporated. These statements are ‘true’ statements and only meant to help guide you to the information you should be uncovering.

The events, places, or circumstances that your group will explore will pave our path to understanding certain milestones. In essence, each branch of the mindmap is a contributory element to this era of World History.

2. Organize your groups.

A. Assign tasks to group members.

B. Choose how your group will collect, organize, and keep track of data collection by group members. If you decide to use a mindmap, you must share the map with Mr.V as before. If you decide to use a different application to keep your group’s research task organized, it must have ‘Can-Edit’ sharing capabilities for Mr.V. Mr.V must be able to observe the digital collaboration, NOT JUST a working copy of the final product (which is a PowerPoint presentation).

C. Begin collecting sources that may be of use in revealing the truths of the focus statements. The sources, as before, are to come from the Research Primers, course textbook, and any additional source you verify with Mr.V.

3. Presentation: Phase II of the project will introduce the product of our findings: An Audio/ Visual Presentation given by one speaker and aided by ‘group experts’. When the initial research phase (Phase I) ends, consider the following as you prepare the presentation:

A. The last slide of your presentation will consist of a Works Cited list. The format for compiling such a list is explained and illustrated on the Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab website. To access that resource, refer to the History Research Primer Mindmap Portal in the ‘Resources’ section of this website for the link. Be sure to use the 2016 MLA formatting standard that is offered on the site.

B. Use the focus statements provided in the mindmap to analyze the data gathered. These focus statements will be of particular importance in addressing the questions that Mr.V will ask at the end of each presentation.

C. Consider the construction of your presentation. Be sure to…
-Control the balance between ‘text’ and imagery.
-Consider the audience: How close will they be to your presentation (projection)? How long will the slide be visible for them to look at?
-As you enter text onto your slides, be sure to highlight the terms that are from the textbook assignments in the pertinent chapter. Your textbook assignments (vocabulary) are required to be incorporated in the text of your presentation slides.

-Consider the time limit for the presentation (8 – 10 minutes)

D. Choose a group member to act as the speaker during the presentation with a ‘tech’ assistant to advance the slides in the presentation. The person you choose to speak MUST NOT HAVE PREVIOUSLY SPOKEN for your group.

E. The Presentation file must…

-Be in a PDF format. Google Slides, macOS, and WindowsOS users must export their file as a PDF.
-Label your file: P02b_Topic-Pd#. (Example: P02b_Rome-03 means that this is a P02b project on Rome from Period 3).
-Attach your presentation file to an email message you send to worldhistoryreview(AT)outlook.com.
-The file must be in Mr.V’s possession by 7 PM the day before your group presents. It is the group’s responsibility to ensure the file ‘opens’ and displays the content in a manner that the group desires. Mr.V cannot correct those types of errors.

F. The Rubric Mr.V will complete as you give your presentation is accessible here.

The Results of P02b_The Classical World

I will make accessible the presentations created by all the research groups within our course. Take advantage of the hard work your peers put into the research that supports their presentation. To see the presentations of Period 3 students, click on the link ‘Pd 03’. For Period 5 students, click ‘Pd 05’.

A compilation of questions that Mr.V asked each presenter will appear below the associated topic heading.

To be posted…

 

P03_HUS-A New Birth

P03_A New Birth

The activity will cover a period of time from 1849 to 1877 (with a few exceptions that may reach beyond). The period marks a watershed period for the nation. The nation before this period IS NOT the nation after this period (which is the nation we are familiar with today). The period is overwhelmingly dominated by the moral question of slavery and the the Constitutional relationship between the federal government, States, and the people. The linking of the former with the latter creates a national crisis that the Civil War had to resolve.

This era in our nation’s history is labeled ‘The Civil War’ in our United States History Research Primer. Our current understanding of the American government and its relationship to the creed described in the Declaration of Independence is formulated at this time. 

Guidance:
Phase I

1. Please open the P03_A New Birth mindmap prepared for you by Mr.V.

2. The mindmap contains six branches labeled for the topic areas being explored. The list of topic area appears below.

01 The Civil War
02 Slavery
03 Expansion/ Movement
04 “Words Matter”
05 Constitutional Matters
06 Reform Movements

3. Open the branch that is assigned to your group. You’ll see that focus statements, meant to surgically dissect the issue, have been incorporated. The events, places, or circumstances that your group will explore will pave our path to understanding the nation’s milestones as it struggles to define and implement its creed. In essence, each branch of the mindmap is a contributory factor to the tumult of the period. 

4. Organize your groups.

A. Assign tasks to group members.

B. Choose how your group will collect, organize, and keep track of data collection by group members. If you decide to use a mindmap, you must share the map with Mr.V as before. If you decide to use a different application to keep your group’s research task organized, it must have ‘Can-Edit’ sharing capabilities with Mr.V.

C. Begin collecting sources that may be of use in deciphering the focus statements. The sources, as before, are to come from the US History Research Primer and any additional source you verify with Mr.V.

5. Phase II of the project will introduce the product of our findings: An Audio/ Visual Presentation. When the initial research phase (Phase I) ends, consider the following as you prepare the presentation:

A. Use the focus statements provided in the P03 Mindmap to analyze the data gathered. These focus statements will be of particular importance in addressing the questions that Mr.V will ask at the end of each presentation.

B. Consider the construction of your presentation. Be sure to…
-Control the balance between ‘text’ and imagery.
-Consider the audience: How close will they be to your presentation (projection)? How long will the slide be visible for them to look at?
-Time limit for the presentation (15 – 20 minutes)

C. Choose a group member to act as the speaker during the presentation with a ‘tech’ assistant to advance the slides in the presentation. The person you choose to speak MUST NOT HAVE PREVIOUSLY SPOKEN for your group. You can access a copy of the rubric Mr.V will use to evaluate your work here.

D. Looking Ahead

In the final project, we will attempt to mesh all the skills we’ve practiced plus a couple of new ones. In P04 we will add 1. Audience Interaction, 2. An MLA citation slide within the presentation file, and 3. Questions/ Answers from the general audience.

The Results of P03_A New Birth

I will make accessible the P03 presentations created by all the research groups within our US History course. Take advantage of the hard work your peers put into the research that supports their presentation.

Below each presentation link is a compilation of questions Mr.V may ask presenters after they have spoken.

To be updated…

01 The Civil War

P03 01_Civil War-Pd09 Grp06

P03 01_Civil War-Pd10 Grp01

Q. How did the huge death tolls from battles impact the communities and nation at whole?

Q. How does the development of the camera impact the way the nation experiences the war?

Q. In what way were the battles of Antietam and Gettysburg similar in a military and philosophical way?

Q. Describe the ‘Grand Strategy’ of the Union to defeat the Confederacy. What did this strategy target to bring an end to the Confederate war effort?

Q. How did immigrants groups, like the Irish, view the war especially as it related to their future aspirations?

02 Slavery

P03 02_Slavery-Pd09 Grp01

P03 02_Slavery-Pd10 Grp06

Q. Despite the widespread knowledge of the physical, emotional, and moral degradation imposed by the institution of slavery, the enslaved population did not uniformly labor on the same tasks. What forms of slave labor did the South States (and Northern States) entertain?

Q. The Civil War split the nation in several ways. The split was as visible in political party platforms as it was geographically. Where did the dominant political parties of that day stand on the issue of Slavery?

Q. Who were the leaders in fighting the institution of slavery and by what vehicle did they do it?

Q. What evidence is there that the constitutional mandate to end the international slave trade did little to damage the slave institution in the United States?

03 Expansion/ Movement

P03 03_Expansion-Pd09 Grp05

P03 03_Expansion-Pd10 Grp04

Q. How were Native Americans impacted by the Westward migration of American citizens during this era?

Q. What did treaties, like the Treaty of Ft. Laramie, promise Native Americans and the US Government? What is the track record for keeping the promises made in these treaties?

Q. While westward movement of Americans has been occurring since the colonial era, what could cause a spike in the numbers traveling West?

Q. How was the view that ‘The West” held the key to a better future  impact a group like the Mormons?

Q. Expansion during this era was not always West and not always on the continent proper. To what extent is this era witnessing the birth of future imperial aspirations?

04 “Words Matter”

P03 04_Words Matter-Pd09 Grp03

P03 04_Words Matter-Pd10 Grp02

Q. How did President Lincoln’s goals evolve between March 1861 and April 1865?

Q. How did the battles of Antietam (1862) and Gettysburg (1863) offer President Lincoln an opportunity to reorient the nation’s goals in the war?

Q. Where did President Lincoln believe that the core beliefs of the American nation were revealed to the world? How did the Gettysburg Address make this known to the nations?

Q. How did ‘religion’ drive the ‘pro-’ and ‘anti-‘ slavery sides of the nation further apart in the years before the Civil War? How did the Methodist Church of the United States a victim of this divide? How did John Brown justify violence in the cause to end the slave institution?

Q. How does Frederick Douglass demonstrate the pride, hypocrisy, and future hope of the American creed in his speech “What to a Slave is the 4th of July?”?

05 Constitutional Matters

P03 05_Constitutional Matters-Pd09 Grp04

P03 05_Constitutional Matters-Pd10 Grp03

Q. To what extent was ‘Secession’ a disputed Constitutional issue in the period prior to the Civil War? 

Q. To what extent is the Constitution reinforcing the view that Slaves are not citizens and, in fact, are ‘property’?

Q. How was the Missouri Compromise undermined and in so doing open the West to Slavery and violence?

Q. What was necessary to ensure that any rights/ liberties gained by former slaves from were not lost in the post-war era?

06 Reform Movements

P03 06_Reform Movements-Pd09 Grp02

P03 06_Reform Movements-Pd10 Grp05

Q. How did the war effort encourage economic activity?

Q. Why were women increasingly appearing in ‘industrial settings’ Outside the home?

Q. How does Henry David Thoreau, and other Transcendentalists, expose new challenges presented by an increasingly industrial society?

Q. How would you prove that certain reform movements, like Abolitionism, was diverse in its membership and methods of protest?

Q. How did the Freedmens’ Bureau attempt to address the limitations and restrictions that marked the institution of slavery in the United States?

P02_HUS-The Young Nation’s Growing Pains

P02_The Young Nation’s Growing Pains

The activity will cover a period of time from 1789 to 1850 (with a few exceptions that may reach beyond). The period marks the initial phase of the American experiment in governance. The challenges, debates, conflicts, etc. that bookmark portions of the period act to redirect the nation’s developmental course.

This era in our nation’s history is labeled ‘The Young Nation’ in our United States History Research Primer. The nation of today is a product of the trials and tribulations of the nation that George Washington introduced to the world in 1789.

This period is marked by an endless series of ‘firsts’. It’s as if minor legal issues, immigrant rights, and Native American relations impact the nation’s development disproportionate to the scale of the event. Since they are ‘firsts’, they carry the gravitas of precedent for a nation that still has more than a century and a half to reach our present time. If we wish to explore the origins of core tenets in United States democratic philosophy, we have to venture into this period of time.

Guidance:
Phase I

1. Please open the P02_The Young Nation’s Growing Pains mindmap prepared for you by Mr.V.

2. The mindmap contains six branches labeled for the topic areas being explored. The list of topic area appears below.

01 Developing Divisions
02 Finance and Economy
03 Military Conflict
04 Technology, Innovation, Exploration
05 The National Government Evolves
06 Africans, Native Americans, Immigrants

3. Open the branch that is assigned to your group. You’ll see that questions, meant to surgically dissect the issue, have been incorporated. The events, places, or circumstances that your group will explore will pave our path to understanding the nation’s milestones as it matures. In essence, each branch of the mindmap is an example of the ‘growing pains’ the United States experiences. Each crisis shapes the nation into what we see today. But, it’ll take more than a century of crisis to do it.

4. Organize your groups.

A. Assign tasks to group members.

B. Choose how your group will collect, organize, and keep track of data collection by group members. If you decide to use a mindmap, you must share the map with Mr.V as before. If you decide to use a different application to keep your group’s research task organized, it must have ‘Can-Edit’ sharing capabilities with Mr.V.

C. Begin collecting sources that may be of use in responding to the questions. The sources, as before, are to come from the US History Research Primer and any additional source you verify with Mr.V.

5. Phase II of the project will introduce the product of our findings: An Audio/ Visual Presentation. When the initial research phase (Phase I) ends, consider the following as you prepare the presentation:

A. Use the focus statements provided in the P02 Mindmap to analyze the data gathered. These focus statements will be of particular importance in addressing the questions that Mr.V will ask at the end of each presentation.

B. Consider the construction of your presentation. Be sure to…
-Control the balance between ‘text’ and imagery.
-Consider the audience: How close will they be to your presentation (projection)? How long will the slide be visible for them to look at?
-Time limit for the presentation (10 – 15 minutes)

C. Choose a group member to act as the speaker during the presentation with a ‘tech’ assistant to advance the slides in the presentation. The person you choose to speak MUST NOT HAVE PREVIOUSLY SPOKEN for your group.

The Results of P02_The Young Nation’s Growing Pains

I have made the P02 presentations created by the students of Mr.V’s US History course available for review by everyone. To see the presentations of Period 9 students, click on the link ‘Pd 09’. For Period 10 students, click ‘Pd 10’.

A compilation of questions that Mr.V asked each presenter appears below the associated topic heading.

01 Developing Divisions (Pd 09, Pd 10)

Q. Why were compromises made during the Constitutional Convention necessary if the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union didn’t require them?

Q. Why is the Bill of Rights critically important for the ratification of the US Constitution?

Q. How did the ‘slavery’ debate, which predated the US Constitution, become adapted to fit the Federalist v. Anti-Federalist debate?

02 Finance and Economy (Pd 09, Pd 10)

Q. Why is the nation’s growth making it difficult to to form a ‘national’ economy?

Q. Why is the the First Bank of the United States a solution and a problem for the young federal government?

Q. To what extent is the ‘America Plan’ a recognition of the nation’s “sectionalism”? How did the War of 1812 make these regional differences a ‘national’ issue?

03 Military Conflict (Pd 09, Pd 10)

Q. How is the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe a portent for future Westward expansion by the United States?

Q. What evidence exists that Shay’s Rebellion (1786-1787) and the Whiskey Rebellion (1791-1794) were ‘symptoms’ of other issues the central government is grappling with?

Q. Aside from quelling the uprising, what was at stake for the young nation in addressing Shay’s and The Whiskey Rebellions?

Q. How did President George Washington’s warning, during his farewell speech, prove true in the developments leading to the War of 1812?

04 Technology, Innovation, Exploration (Pd 09, Pd 10)

Q. To what extent was the Cotton Gin a catalyst for Westward expansion?

Q. With respect to the Federal System (Federalism), what role did the 1792 Militia Act play in making the nation ‘One’?

Q. How does Eli Whitney’s technological and innovative qualities/ skills entangle him in Westward expansion, expansion of slavery, and the 1792 Militia Act?

05 The National Government Evolves (Pd 09, Pd 10)

Q. How does the inscription (below) reflect Chief Justice Marshall’s view of the judiciary’s powers?

“It is Emphatically the Province and Duty of the Judicial Department to say what the Law is.” – Marbury v. Madison, 1803.

Q. In the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, what were the criteria for identifying who is ‘alien’ and who is ‘citizen’?

Q. How did the Nullification Crisis (1832 – 1837) challenged Federalism and test the authority of the President of the United States?

06 Africans, Native Americans, Immigrants (Pd 09, Pd 10)

Q. The 3/5 Compromise was ostensibly a way to include African slaves in the population numbers of a State. Thus, increasing representation within the House of Representatives for slaveholding States. However, what did the article within the US Constitution state (directly or indirectly) about the status of Native peoples?

Q. The Amistad slave ship and its human cargo was a problem for the young nation. The appearance of the ship and the subsequent Supreme Court case (1839-1841) challenged the nation’s founding principles and the law forbidding international slave trade (1808). How did a slaveholding society (millions of slaves were in bondage in the US at the time) justify freeing the Africans on the ship and still keep millions enslaved?

Q. Is the Carlisle School eradicating Native cultures or Americanizing Native peoples?

Q. How did the plight of Wong Kim Ark, and the subsequent Supreme Court case (1873-1898), help refine who is a citizen?

Pr03de_Europe of the High Middle Ages: Change and Turmoil (Slide by Slide Description)

To view the presentation that accompanies the slide descriptions below, please navigate to Pr03de_Europe of the High Middle Ages: Change and Turmoil

Slide 01 (Cover Slide): The map is of Europe mid-way through the 12th C. Each colored area and the cities (Stars) that dot the map is representative of the places listed in the upper-left corner.

The map is a visual representation of the violence that permeates Medieval Europe and the resulting ‘fracture’ of political entities. Unlike the relatively stable era of the Frankish Kingdoms centuries before, this Europe has become destabilized despite the qualities of a Feudal system.

Slide 02: A description of ‘Change’. It’s not a force of some kind. Instead, ‘Change’ is the result of a force or forces.

Slide 03: On a smaller scale, the Church is changing, and continue to do so, in this era. The forces acting upon the Church leaders are many, and will have connections to those forces that affect greater Europe.

Slide 04: Since the heyday of the Frankish Kingdom, Europe has subject to growing feudal organization. However, it’s not until the 10th C. and beyond, that the Feudal Europe many students have a vague notion of undeniably emerges. That system instituted and refined, over two centuries, a hierarchy meant to rigidly organize society. But, signs of societal instability are everywhere to be seen in this society- which was structured to be stable.

In our upcoming investigations, we will take a look at several ‘forces’ that may be causing Europe to ‘Change’.

Slide 05: First up, in our search for an explanation of Europe’s instability is Food Production.

After reading R03e_Growth of Urban Centers, you should be asking yourself “What was a primary mover for changes described in the text?” Several developments are described in the reading, but they leave a gap where you and I can ask “Why?”

A rising population number can begin to explain the movement to towns. That population growth is a product of other ‘forces of Change’ that were contributing to an Agricultural Revolution.

The steady increase in food production contributed to (or if you’re Robert Malthus: ’caused’) a rapid growth in population. {see Malthusian Theory of Population at https://goo.gl/E9hCOU}

What’s causing food production to jump?

The image is representative of the agricultural portion of a feudal Manor. Fields are divided into segments for crops and livestock. Fallow fields are necessary to allow for soil rejuvenation. This is the way it’s been done for centuries in Europe.

But, what if we alternate crops that are planted each growing cycle in these fields, and introduce other crops that enrich the soil while avoiding fallow (unproductive and eroding) fields? Enter: CROP ROTATION & THREE-FIELD SYSTEM.

This innovation introduced a ‘cover’ crop (Ex.: Clover) to diminish wind erosion on fallow fields while providing plants for cattle grazing.

Legumes, a nitrogen-fixing plant species (Ex.: Peas), were planted and thus the soil was enriched as the land produced a nutritious food.

The introduction of Beans added a protein source lacking in the diets of Serfs and Free Peasants.

Better land management. More food. Better quality food. You get more people.

Slide 06: This image is not of an actual ‘ancient’ plow. However, it is an example of an early plow. Crudely constructed and unable to break the clumps of soil that existed in parts of Europe North of the Mediterranean basin. This type of plow dominated the Classical period of Greece and Rome.

These types of plows could not sustain farming communities in the Northern regions of Europe which left that area relatively unpopulated.

Slide 07: This image represents a sturdier, metal-blade, plow that was introduced into Europe during the High Middle Ages. This technology would make the rapid occupation of the Northern, forested, areas of Europe since farmers can now till that soil.

This plow and the previously mentioned land management changes is an example that the Medieval Period was not devoid of innovation and technology- as some textbook sources might imply.

Slide 08: Another innovation targeted the harnessing of animal power for agricultural work.

Common for many centuries in Europe was the use of Oxen to pull plows and carts. Teams of two, joined together by a yoke, are depicted here pulling a cart.

Slide 09: Here is a wooden yoke made for Oxen. It rests on top of the animal’s shoulders and the loops encircle the neck. This yoke would be for a team of two Oxen.

A few things to consider: Oxen are very slow, stubborn in temperament, low stamina, and very strong.

A horse, on the other hand: Very fast, responds well to commands, high stamina, strong- but not as strong as an Ox.

Slide 10: Horses were not commonly owned during the Medieval Period because they have a major drawback: the expense to maintain and feed them. Horses must be have ‘shoes’, groomed, and fed high quality fodder (Ex.: Oats). This is one reason why horse ownership becomes a status symbol in this era. If you owned one or more, you had to be wealthy. Knights would be on a horse, Peasants would use and ride Oxen.

Innovation and technology was needed to employ the horse as a work animal; targeting it’s attributes toward food production. Enter: THE HORSE HARNESS.

This harness, unlike the Ox’s yoke, transferred the animal’s power to the plow/ cart via a harness that rested on its back and strapped along its chest. If a yoke was used instead, the horse would choke whenever it attempted to pull something.

Additionally, the efficiency a farmer gains from doing his work faster with an animal that tires less-frequently, more food could be produced to feed the horse the high-quality grains it needs (Ex.: Oats). The spare time the farmer earns can be partially used to groom the animal and put ‘shoes’ on its hooves.

More work. Less Time. More efficient. More food and more people.

Slide 11: The innovations and technology I’ve briefly described here did not originate in Europe. These ‘ideas’ traveled TO Europe and were modified, once there, by Europeans to suit their needs and fuel and agricultural revolution.

Therefore, where did they come from and why did it get to a Europe that lived under a feudal system that endorsed ‘self-sufficiency’?

Enter: THE CRUSADES

The Crusades provided a reason to venture far from feudal Europe and then the powerful engine of cultural diffusion did the rest. This crusading era will be a topic of future investigation.

Slide 12: Citations

AN03a2_ An Age of Exchange and Encounter: No ‘Dark Age’ in the Islamic World.

Timeline: 8th C. – 13th C.
FS: There is no ‘Dark Age’ in the Islamic World.

Main Idea
Byzantium (though in Asia Minor, they continued to refer to themselves as Roman) was a shining beacon of civilized life. But to its south, in the Middle Eastern deserts of the Arabian peninsula, there was a stir within tribal customs of the Bedouin. In less than 200 years, it became clear that what was developing in the desert was more than a faith. It was the start of a civilization that would challenge its bigger ‘brother’ to the north and the great Tang dynasty to the east. Europe would fear it and become partially conquered by it. This Islamic empire would become a ‘bridge’ between eastern and western cultures as well as the Classic and Medieval world. Once Islam crossed into the continents of Africa, Asia, and Europe the civilization bloomed with the splendor of the classical civilizations of the past.

I. The Spread of Islam
Islam spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa from 632-750 CE. This was a contributing factor to the present dominance of Islam and Arab culture in this area.

A. Very Fast. Three directions & three continents
B. Military Conquests
C. Tolerant Rule (1)
D. Increasing Conflict with Byzantine Empire

II. The Caliphate
The Islamic civilization existed for a period of 600 years. In that time, the center of religious/ secular leadership went from Mecca (the home of The Prophet) to Damascus and then to Baghdad. As time passed, the governmental form of this rising civilization evolved from a religious and tribal base to the secular and institutional base of empires. Central to it, however, remained the question as to who would be the successor to The Prophet.

A. Orthodox Caliphate (632 – 661)

1. Caliph: “Successor” to the Prophet Muhammad. This carried political significance. It did not bestow the title of ‘prophet’ on any individual who became Caliph.
2. The faith extends beyond the boundary of the Arabian peninsula.
3. The mixing of politics with religion leads to intrigue and assassinations.

B. Umayyad Caliphate (Damascus, 7th – 8th C.)

1. Assassination of Husayn
2. Extend Islam to Europe (Iberian Peninsula)

C. Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad, 8th – 13th C.)

1. Dominated East – West Caravan Trade
2. Preservation and Support for ‘learning’. (The Golden Age)

III. The Golden Age

A. Arts
Islamic artists became famous in their own right by comprising some of the world’s most expressive poetry. But to Muslims, the greatest literary work then and now is the Qur-an.

1. Preservation of ‘Classical’ culture via recording of texts and visual arts.
2. Poetry: The Rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam
3. Literature: Prose/ Poetry

a. The Qur-an
b. 1001 Arabian Nights

B. Sciences

1. Mathematics

• al-Khwarizmi (9th C.) => Algebra
• Arabic Numerals and Concept of ‘zero’

2. Chemistry: Alchemy
3. Medicine

a. ‘Viral’ nature of disease and development of Vaccines
b. Anesthesia
c. Compilation of medical texts:

* al-Rhazes (850 – 923)
* Ibn-Sina (aka ‘Avicenna’) in Europe (980 – 1037)

4. Astronomy

a. Religious Significance
b. Sea Charts and maps with Latitude Lines
c. Astrolabe

5. Architecture: Domes, Arches, & Towers (as in Mosque design)

6. Cultural/ Material Diffusion

a. Spices and other luxury items from Far East, South, & S-E Asia (Pepper, Cinnamon, and Nutmeg).
b. Direct competition with Chinese and Byzantine commerce.
c. Silk and Paper from Far East.
d. Lateen Sail

Footnotes
1. The trans-Saharan caravan trade, in addition to these, spread Islam into the rest of the Arabian Peninsula, Africa, Asia, and Europe. These activities encouraged cultural diffusion. Since tolerance was a religious requirement, the conquest and rule over non-Muslims was less problematic.

Resources
-World History: Perspectives on the Past
-Slide Presentation

R02b_Roman Construction Innovation

R02b_Republican Roman Construction

by Judith Geary

1. Ruins often reveal that stone or brick was precisely laid at a building ́s front, corners and around doorways, and less regularly at the back and the walls between. Sometimes, these “important” places were cut stone and the walls and between them were some other material, mud bricks or mortar and rubble. Vitruvius reports that “basketwork,” lath or cane woven together and covered with mortar or plaster, might be used by the poor or for interior walls, particularly on upper stories. This construction was neither moisture resistant nor fireproof, but it was lightweight, cheap and quickly built. Of course, these walls have not survived.

2. About the third century BCE, Roman builders discovered that volcanic ash, when added to lime mortar, made a cement that cured to a rocklike hardness even under water. Mixed with sand and gravel, this material was the equivalent of modern concrete. At first concrete was used like a particularly durable mortar, or for places where its ability to harden without drying out was important—for the water courses of aqueducts and for bridge pilings, for example.

3. Concrete gradually caught on for construction of homes and public buildings, but not in the sense it has in modern times, when architects have taken advantage of the characteristics of the material to create soaring skyscrapers, fantastic shapes and homes cantilevered out over waterfalls. (The soaring dome of Hadrian ́s Pantheon is an example of a particularly sophisticated concrete design, but that ́s a product of the Empire.) In the time of the Republic, the core of a wall would be concrete, but the facings remained brick or stone. At first, the concrete might be poured between facings of masonry, and layers of rubble added. Eventually, walls became essentially a mass of concrete, poured into a wooden form and finished before it was completely set. The old terms acquired new meanings. Opus testaceum referred to a concrete wall in which wedge-shaped pieces of brick were inserted, point first, so that the wall appeared to be of laid brick. Opus incertum referred to a concrete wall in which irregular chunks of stone were pressed into the soft concrete. When the concrete set, the stones were chiseled down even with the concrete surface. Opus reticulatum, or “netlike work” in which little square pyramids of stone were inserted point first in a diamond pattern, became quite popular. This pattern appears as the flat surfaces of walls between corners of laid brick or stone. According to Vitruvius, opus incertum is an “ancient style,” and opus reticulatum, while not as strong, is the “style used by everybody.”

4. We might ask ourselves why Roman builders bothered with facings of brick or stone for concrete walls. They certainly added nothing to the strength, and they were covered in the finished wall with plaster and paint. The striking opus reticulatum walls we see today at Pompeii and other ruins were likely not visible when the buildings were in use. Perhaps we can look to the basic conservatism of the Roman people. If a man was paying to have a wall built, he expected to see brick or stone.

5. We have inherited much from the early Romans. Constructing a picture for ourselves of builders of Republican Rome, we find they share many characteristics with modern builders. They were capable of building monuments of enduring beauty and grandeur. However, they were also guilty of taking particular care with the parts of the building that “showed,” and less with the parts that did not. The Romans had “faux-finishes” on walls and columns. They used plaster and stucco to simulate carvings of stone and wood. So the designer faux wallpapers, plastic crown moldings and ceiling medallions of modern homes may be more traditional than we think.

© Judith Geary 2000

Sources
-Adkins, Lesley & Roy A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome Facts on File, New York, 1994.
-De Camp, L. Sprague, The Ancient Engineers Barnes & Noble Books, 1993.
-GimbH, E.T.V., Architecture of the World: The Roman Empire Compagnie du Liver d’Art, S.A., Lausanne, Germany, (no date given). Morgan, Morris Hicky, trans., Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1960 ed.

Taken from an entry on http://www.about.com in 2001 by Mr.V and edited for classroom use. The author’s rights remain in force.

Questions
1. What explanation can you offer for Rome’s decision to increasingly use Cement/ Concrete as a building material rather than continuing to use stone or brick?
2. Despite Rome’s advancements in using Cement/ Concrete, they often covered walls with fake brick and, at times, painted-over the brick appearance (rather than leaving out the fake appearance to begin with). Can you surmise why?