R03f_Ch.15: lbn Battuta’s description of the salt mines of Taghaza

R03f_Ch.15: lbn Battuta’s description of the salt mines of Taghaza
 
Then I traveled at the beginning of the month of God, Muharram, in the year ‘fifty-three [753 A.H., 18 February A.D. 1352] with travel companions whose leader was Abu Muhammad Yandakan al-Massufi, may God have mercy on him.

In the company was a group of the merchants of Sijilmasa and others. We arrived after twenty-five days at Taghaza. It is a village with no good in it. Amongst its curiosities is the fact that the construction of its houses and its mosques is of rock salt with camel skin roofing and there are no trees in it, the soil is just sand. In it is a salt mine. It [Salt] is dug out of the ground and is found there in huge slabs, one on top of another as if it had been carved and put under the ground. A camel can carry two slabs of salt. Nobody lives in it except slaves of the Massufa who dig for the salt and live on dates brought to them from Darca and Sijilmasa, and on the meat of camels, and on *anli  *which is brought from the land of the blacks.

The blacks arrive from their country and carry away the salt from there. A camel load of it is sold in Iwalatan [Walata] for from eight to ten mithqals, and in the town of Malli for twenty to thirty mithqals, perhaps the price reaches up to forty. The blacks exchange the salt as money as one would exchange gold and silver. They cut it up and trade with it in pieces. In spite of the insignificance of the village of Taghaza, the trading in it comes to the equivalent of many qintars of gold dust.
 
Source: Said Harndun and Noel King, Ibn Battuta in Black Africa, Princeton: Publishers, 1994, pp.30-31.

Questions to Ponder:

1. What appears to be the author’s estimation of the village?
2. What, if anything, amazes Ibn Battuta about the village?
 

R03f_Ch.15: West Africa and the Observations of Leo Africanus

R03f_Ch.15: West Africa and the Observations of Leo Africanus

In 1510, Leo’s uncle made the cross-Saharan trip via Sijilmasa-Taghaza to Timbuktu. Leo traveled with him and later wrote about his adventures.

… of Timbuktu
Here are many shops of artificers and merchants, and especially of such as weave linen [sic] and cotton cloth. And hither do the Barbay merchants bring cloth of Europe. All the women of this region except the maid servants go with their faces covered, and sell all necessary victuals. The inhabitants, and especially strangers living there, are exceedingly rich, insomuch that the king married both his daughters unto two rich merchants. Here are many wells containing the most sweet water; and so often as the River Niger over flowed they convey the water thereof by sluices into the town. Corn, cattle, milk, and butter this region yields in great abundance: but salt is very scarce here, for it is brought hither by land from Taghaza.

… of Jenne
In Jenne, Leo saw “a city prospering from its crops of rice, barley fish, cattle and cotton. The cotton is a major crop sold unto the merchants of Barbay for cloth of Europe, for brass vessels, for armor and such other commodities.”

…of Gao
Leo wrote: “It is a wonder to see what plenty of merchandise is daily brought hither, and how costly and sumptuous all things be. Horses bought in Europe for ten ducats are sold again for forty and sometimes for fifty ducats apiece. There is not any cloth of Europe so coarse, which will not here be sold for four ducats an ell and if it be anything fine they will give fifteen ducats for an ell; and an ell of the scarlet of Venice or of Turkey, valued at three or four crowns and so likewise are spurs, bridles, with other like commodities, and spices also are sold at a high rate: but of all other commodities salt is most extremely dear”.

Source: Patricia and Frederick McKissack, The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1994, pg.s 53, 105-106.

Questions to Ponder:
1. What does the author identify as qualities for each city?
2. How do the descriptions of the cities reveal similarities/ differences between them?

R03f_Ch.15: West African Trade Empires and the Gold – Salt Trade

R03f_Ch.15: West African Trade Empires and the Gold – Salt Trade

The gold-salt trade prospered in Western Africa, particularly in the empires of Mali from 1200-1400 C.E. and in Songhai from 1450-1600 CE. The economy of these empires depended heavily on the trade of gold and salt. The government’s economic policies reflected the centrality of these two natural resources.

The Kingdom of Ghana

Up until the 1200s, the former Ghana had controlled the gold-salt trade. But, due to war and depletion of their mineral deposits, the center of the gold-salt trade shifted eastward to the Kingdom of Mali, and subsequently (1400s) to Songhai. As the center of gold-salt trade shifted eastward so did the trade routes. Gold was traded with the Berbers, Muslim desert dwellers in the North, in exchange for salt. In fact, the unification of the different Berber tribes and the spread of Islam among West African rulers had promoted the expansion of the gold-salt trade by providing safe trade routes. The major trading cities in which West African merchants traded were Timbuktu, Walata, Alexandria, Nian, Marrakesh, Tunis, Tripoli and Lenne. The Empire of Mali controlled the trading routes from 12th century to early 15th C. until the control was transferred to Songhai in the 15th C. as a result of wars.

The Kingdom of Mali

At its height in the 14th century, the Empire of Mali, which included Songhai, stretched from the Atlantic coast to the Songhai capital of Gao, further East along the Niger river. In the south, it stretched to the forest and included the gold fields of Bure and Bamduck. To the North, it stretched across the Sahel to the border of the Sahara.

By the 12th century, the Malinke’s attained their independence from the Soninke, which resulted in the birth of Mali. The Mandingos of Mali became the controllers of the salt-gold routes. Sumanguru was their first ruler. He killed all his son’s except Sundiati to prevent possible rebellion against him. However, in 1235 Sundiati fought against his father and won. He became a great leader who promoted agriculture, and re-established the gold-salt trade.

In 1255, a Muslim leader named Mansa Musa took over the reigns of Mali. He made Mali into a powerful empire that dominated West Africa. He maintained a strong army and provided an efficient government. By the early 1400’s the Empire of Mali had begun to weaken.

The Kingdom of Songhai

By 1450, the people of Songhai had replaced the Mandingo as the controllers of the gold-salt trade routes. In the 15th C., Songhai, which was previously under Mali rule, became independent and established its own empire within the region. Songhai became the leading commercial kingdom in West Africa. Sunni Ali, one of Songhai’s great kings, expanded his wealth and made his empire the most powerful state in Africa. Askia Muhammad (1493-1528), who became king after overthrowing Sunni Ali’s son, was another great Songhai king. He took Songhai to new heights and further proclaimed Islam the official religion of the empire. He brought education to his empire through the Muslim culture.

Both Mali and Songhai had similar government and economic policies since their main trade depended on gold and salt. These empires had developed contacts with foreign traders who brought various commodities, the main import being salt. The contact with the foreign traders increased the inflow and the outflow of commodities. Increased taxation on these commercial activities brought sizable revenue to the kings. The kings did not have direct controls of the gold fields. However, they controlled the commercial routes and ensured that the value of the gold did not decrease as a result of a new outside source.

Trans-Sahran Caravan Trade

Trade between West Africa and the Mediterranean coast (to the North and West) was exclusively handled by Trans-Sahran Caravan trade. At regularly scheduled intervals, caravans, using camels as cargo carriers, would depart from ‘land ports’ in West Africa and North Africa (like Gao and Tunis, respectively). During the 13th, 14th, and 15th C., you might have Gold shipped from West Africa and Salt would be brought back on the return trip.

The empires of the Niger River valley could, and did, bring a variety of goods to West Africa. But, Salt was of special significance since it serves a biological and practical purpose. Salt is needed by the human body for good health, more so in an extreme climates like that of the Sahara region. Salt is also a critical food preservative for a region and era lacking refrigeration.

Salt may have been scarce in the Niger River valley, but it’s abundance in areas North and West of the valley was manifest in the architecture of nearby cities, like Taghazi. This city was located near the salt mines, which were between the Niger River valley and the Moroccan coast. Chroniclers, like Ibn-Battuta, made sure to mention in his chronicles that the buildings of Taghazi were made of Salt; Not totally surprising since Salt is a mineral and can serve as ‘stone’ for buildings.

The Trans-Saharan Caravan trade could only be a source of immense wealth if the mineral wealth of the region could be safeguarded and controlled by the kings of the empires (Ghana, then Mali, and finally Songhai). Its when this didn’t occur that the health of the empire was threatened.

Questions to Ponder:

1. The gold wealth of the West African Trading Empires was legendary. However, is there any reason to conclude that dependence on one resource (Gold) automatically condemns the region to failure?
2. Is there any nation in our modern world that displays the same dependence on a single resource?
3. To what extent Is the Trans-Saharan Caravan Trade similar/ different to the Silk Road?

AN03f_Ch.15-West African Trade Empires

AN03f_Ch.15-West African Trade Empires

Timeline: 13th – 16th C.
FQ: To what extent did the West African States exploit their environment to achieve commercial success?

Main Idea: West Africa contained several rich and powerful states: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. The gold – salt trade prospered in the region particularly during the empires of Mali (1200-1400) and Songhai (1450 – 1600). The economy of these empires depended heavily on the trade of gold and salt. Their government and economic policies revolved around the control of that trade. These civilizations maintained contact with Europe, Northern & Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Near East regions via commercial activity. Gold deposits, proximity to a major river, and a strong ‘market’ contributed to a degree of prosperity that was legendary.

CCSS NYSS…
-WHST.9-10.2/4/6-9
-RST.9-10.1 (Cite sources on mindmap)

I. Context
A. Time: 14th C.
B. Place: West Africa/ Niger River Basin
C. Circumstance: Intra-African trade network connecting sub-Sahara Africa and North Africa (Cairo & Mediterranean Basin) with the West African Trading Empires of Ghana, then Mali, and finally Songhai.

II. Concerns of a trading society.
A. Transportation: Niger River & Trans-Saharan Caravan (1)
B. Labor: Agriculturally productive society supports a high population density & a huge labor force. (2)
C. Product: Gold is the available trading item. Gold is used to acquire other ‘Needs’ and ‘Wants’
D. Needs & Wants: Salt is the ‘Need’ for biological and food preservation purposes. Manufactured goods=\> metal products & luxury goods, are the ‘Wants’.
E. Favorable Political Condition: Strong leadership, safe roads, standard weights & measures,… Mali=\> Sundiata & Mansa Musa. Songhai=\> Sunni Ali & Askia Muhammad. (3)

III. Evidence of Commercial Growth
A. Large Urban Centers [Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne]
1. Important commercial centers on the Niger river bank.
2. Intellectual and spiritual centers. Home to a prestigious Quranic universities  and great structures (e.g. Mosque of Jenne).
3. Religious, Commercial, and Scholarly activity make these cities centers for cultural diffusion.
B. Arts Flourish (textiles, metallurgy, adornments)
C. Contact w/ Foreigners (Arab Merchants, European Ambassadors)

IV. The Commercial Societies of Mali & Songhai
A. The Government & the Gold – Salt Trade
   Mali and Songhai shared similarities since their economic and political interests depended on gold and salt. These empires had developed contacts with foreign traders who brought various commodities, the main import being salt. The contact with the foreign traders increased the inflow and the outflow of commodities. This resulted in increased taxation and sizable revenue to the kings. The kings did not have direct controls of the gold fields. However, they controlled the commercial routes of gold and salt and ensured that the value of the gold did not decrease as a result of a new outside source.
   Trans-Saharan trade routes were established by the empires. The power of the kings increased due to revenues from gold – salt trade. Because of their wealth and popularity they were able to get recognition inside and outside of the region. The gold markets were controlled by the kings who had passed laws that gave them authority, among other things, to control the market, to regulate the gold supply and to establish barter mode trading. The kings also passed a law that limited the gold-salt trade to the upper class that was loyal to the kings.
   Up to the 1200s, Ghana controlled the gold-salt trade but due to war and depletion of gold reserves, the center of the gold-salt trade shifted eastward to the Kingdom of Mali, and subsequently in the 1400s to Songhai. As the center of gold-salt trade shifted eastward so did the trade routes. Gold was traded with the Berbers, Moslem desert dwellers in the north, in exchange for salt. In fact, the unification of the different Berber tribes and the spread of Islam religion among West African rulers had promoted the expansion of the gold-salt trade. The major trading cities in which West African merchants traded were Timbuktu, Walata, Alexandria, Nian, Marrakesh, Tunis, Tripoli and Jenne. The Empire of Mali controlled the trading routes from 12th century to 14th century until the control was transferred to Songhai in the 14th century as a result of wars.
   The kings established strong armies to protect their empires and to control and safeguard the trade routes. The army was also used to expand the empire to get more gold-mine territory. Inter-marriage took place between tribes to strengthen their empire and control the trade routes. In addition, the governments established vigorous competition among the most powerful trading centers along the Niger River, namely Timbuktu, Gao, and Jenne. They had instituted excellent financial system to support the prosperous trade and commerce. They had also established good trade relations with neighboring civilizations so that the gold and salt trade would not be hampered.
   The kings levied taxes on all goods passing in, out of, and through the empire. They also collected taxes from their subjects. When Mali conquered new provinces, the traditional rulers were left in place provided that they collected and forwarded tribute, which is a form of tax to the king. The king kept a large standing army whose duties included ensuring that district chiefs paid the tribute to the king. In Songhai, when a new province was conquered, the traditional rulers were replaced by governors appointed by the king. Each governor recruited his own local army which oversaw the regular payment of tributes by farmers.

B. The “Silent Trade”
   Mali’s gold was exchanged for Saharan salt at a specific spot by traders. The salt traders would pile the salt in rows then retreat. The gold traders (from Mali) would advance and heap the equivalent gold ore beside the salt before also leaving. If both traders were satisfied, they took the gold and salt. If not satisfied, they would wait for a better deal. The two parties did not meet face-to-face during this activity.

C. Mali
   At its height in the 14th C., the empire of Mali, which included Songhai, stretched from the Atlantic south of Senegal to the Songhai capital of Gao on the Niger bend. In the south, it stretched to the forest and included the gold fields of Bure and Bamduck, while in the north it stretched across the Sahel to the border of the Sahara.
   By the 12th C., the Malinke people attained their independence from the Soninke, and that resulted in the birth of Mali. The Mandingos of Mali became the controllers of the salt – gold routes. Sumanguru was their first ruler. In 1235, Sumanguru’s son, Sundiati, fought against him and won. He became a great leader who promoted agriculture and re-established control over the gold – salt trade.
   In 1255, Mansa Musa took over the reigns of Mali. He made Mali into a powerful empire that dominated West Africa. He maintained a strong army with emphasis on cavalry. His government provided the stability and leadership to promote commerce. By the early 1400’s the Empire of Mali had begun to weaken.

D. Songhai
   In the 15th century, Songhai, which was previously under Mali control, became independent and established its own empire. By the 16th C., Mali was incorporated into the Songhai kingdom.
   By 1450, the people of Songhai had replaced the Mandingo as the controllers of the gold-salt trade routes. In the 15th century Songhai became the leading commercial kingdom in West Africa. Sunni Ali, one of Songhai’s great kings, expanded his wealth and made his empire the most powerful state in Africa. Askia Muhammad (1493-1528) who became king after overthrowing Sunni Ali’s son, was another great Songhai king. He took Songhai to new heights and further proclaimed Islam the official religion of the empire. He also brought education to his empire via the Muslim culture.

V. Elements contributing to Decline [Compare/ Contrast with other great civilizations]
A. Corruption
B. Depletion of Natural Resources (Gold mines exhausted and new reserves located beyond current borders)
C. Foreign Invasion [Moroccans vs. Songhai]
D. Technological Disadvantage [Moroccan firearms=\> handheld firearms as well as Cannon]

VI. Summary: Why it matters now.
These civilizations demonstrate the richness of African culture before European colonization.

A. Consider how these regions/ societies experienced similar circumstances, and outcomes, to that witnessed by Mali & Songhai.
1. Venice, Florence, & Genoa as examples of commercial societies.
2. OPEC & nations dependent on a single natural resource.
3. Movement caused by commercial need: Mongols (12th-13th C)
4. New technology contributing to collapse of a civilization: Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (1453- Cannon)

B. View film and respond to select questions. A discussion focusing on the responses will follow.

Footnotes:
(1) Through this trade network, Arab merchants acted as ‘middlemen’ between North Africa (incl. Europe and Asia, via Cairo) and West Africa (incl. sub-Sahara Africa).
(2) Provides the manpower
(3) Consumers can rest assure that the transactions are ‘honest and true’ without the confusion caused by regional differences. Those wishing to participate in commercial activities can do so without fear of theft and victimization.

Resources:
-World History: Perspectives on the Past, World History: Patterns of Interaction
-Millennium Video Series, CNN Productions, Inc. ©1999.
-Data Source: \ last accessed 2001
-Data Source: \ last accessed 2001
-Data Source: \ last accessed 2001
-Koslow, Philip. Songhay: the Empire Builders. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1995.

AN03c_Ch.12-Khmer Empire

AN03c_Ch12: Khmer Empire of Cambodia

Timeline: 4th C. – 17th C. CE
FS: Geography and commerce contribute to the birth of the Khmer Empire.

Main Idea: The unique geographic conditions of S-E Asia contributed to it being one of the most traveled places on earth. The resulting cultural diversity nurtured a great civilization in the region.

CCSS/ NYSS…

I. Geography
A. Map Exercise
B. Vocabulary Review
C. Trade routes (eg. Strait of Malacca) abound and contribute to a culturally diverse population.
D. Geologically active (e.g. Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions, etc.)

II. Commercial Activity & Cultural Diffusion (4th – 16th C.)
A. Trade routes used by Ancient Indians, Chinese, and Europeans (beginning in the 16th C.)
B. Plagued by piracy for centuries.
C. Fees for use of ports have traditionally been charged.
D. Valuable products traversing the routes included: spices, precious metals and gems, and an assortment of goods from China.
E. Spread of Ideas
1. Buddhist Missionaries
2. Hinduism
3. Islam
4. Christianity
5. Inter-marriage (traders & native peoples)

III. The Khmer Empire of Cambodia
A. Founded by the Khmer people of Cambodia
B. Longest-lasting of the SE Asian empires
C. Angkor Period: Height of the civilization lasting from 850 – 1250 CE. Capital city  =\> Angkor.
1. Brick, Stone, & Wood structures
2. Angkor Wat was the grandest of structures (Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu)
D. In general, the Hindu caste system was not widely accepted in SE Asia. In keeping with this development, women enjoyed higher status and access to education and government.
E. Foreign invasions contributed to the eventual collapse of the empire in 1430: Mongols and Thais.

IV. Islamic & Chinese Influence
A. Islam reaches the region via merchants. To this day, Indonesia has the largest Islamic population in the world.
B. China influenced Annam (Vietnam) for centuries. Annam was a tributary state. Aside from being a major trader of goods in the region, China’s cultural influence didn’t reach much farther than the borders of Annam.

V. Modern Challenges: The Khmer Rouge of the 1970’s

VI. Summary: Why it matters now.
Chinese cultural influences still affect East and Southeast Asia today.

Resources:
– Article: Khmer Rouge leaders on trial (26 June 2011 \)
– Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: A comprehensive archaeological map of the world’s largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia.
– World History: Patterns of Interaction
– (HR) Read page 439 – 441 “Recollections on the Customs of Cambodia” by Zhou Daguan, 13th C. (Time Permitting)

FilmQ03f_Ch.15-Mali as a West African Trading Empire

FilmQ03f_Ch.15- Mali as a West African Trade Empire

CCSS/ NYSS…

How to Use Video as a Source
Step #1: Familiarize yourself with film questions prior to viewing the film. By reading the questions and understanding the vocabulary contained within, you allow yourself the luxury of viewing the film without having to look at the questions continuously.

Step #2: View and Listen Attentively. Unlike a book, a video provides information via visual images and audio. Both forms of data are ‘more valuable together’ than separately. For example, turn the volume off on your TV during your favorite program. Then, raise the volume while ‘blacking out’ the image. Under which conditions was the data most richly delivered? Always make sure that you have unobstructed viewing of a film and that the sound is audible.

As you view the video, pay attention to visual and/ or audio cues that reflect the issues raised by the questions below. Your responses should refer to video content as well as your current knowledge and understanding of history.

Step #3: Organize Your Thoughts. Unlike a book, the data from a video is often delivered at a constant rate. With a book, you can slow your reading speed when you encounter a particular segment that is complicated. You can also turn back to a previous page to review information. A film is a bit different in that you may not always have the option to use ‘slow motion’ or ‘rewind’. Therefore, maintaining focus on the imagery and sound is important. Targeted Notes will reduce the amount of time you’re looking away from the film. By writing quick and simple phrases of a few words each, you maintain greater attention to film events. Targeted notes use key words/ phrases that will ignite a thought or idea when you read them later. There is no concern for grammar or spelling while doing this. After the film has ended, you look at your targeted notes and manipulate the data to compile responses in complete sentences.

Organizational Tip: Vertically divide your sheet of paper (where you’ll write your responses). On the ‘left’ half, take targeted notes for each question given. After viewing the video, use the targeted notes to compose complete responses to each question (on the ‘right’ half of the sheet).

Your responses to these film questions will form the foundation of, or supplement, your notes for this lesson. While the focus of the film is Mali, keep close attention to the values and goals that motivated this society to build a commercial empire and flourishing civilization. These same values/ goals were pivotal in Ghana, which preceded Mali, as well as the Songhai kingdom which succeeded Mali.

SOURCE: CNN’s Millennium Video Series: The 14th Century: Century of the Scythe ©1999. [~10 Min.] Narrated by Ben Kingsley.

Context: West Africa, c. 14th-15th C., Mali Empire

1. Who does the narrator use as a source for information about the Mali empire?

2. How would you describe the environment in which the critical Salt – Gold trade of Mali took place? How did this impact the mode of transportation of the Salt and Gold?\*

3. We know why gold would be a sought-after commodity in trade, but why is ‘salt’ paired with it?

4. Like many other great cities from the past and present, what did the cities and other urban areas of the Mali empire offer to stimulate scholarly thought and discussion?

5. a. What singular event involving Mansa Musa publicized to the world the great wealth of Mali?
b. What attempts were made to keep the source of that wealth a secret?

6. How was the Mali military affected by the wealth of the empire?

7. How did a European map of the period immortalize the wealth of Mali and its most famous ruler? What impact could this and similar images have on a Europe that is on the brink of venturing into unknown waters?

* This trade was part of a vast network of tribal merchants and the routes they used to traverse the expanse of North Africa. The Sahara desert dominated the region and thus the commercial activity is referred to as The Trans-Saharan Caravan Trade.